Epilogue
From the beginning of literature, poets and writers have based their narratives on crossing borders, on wandering, on exile, on encounters beyond the familiar. -Jhumpa Lahiri
WHAT did the Romans, Genghis Khan, Christopher Columbus and the CIA have in common? They were all “border crossers”. They were not content with their respective traditional borders and they decided to pass them. They, in turn, remind us that since the ancient times there has been strong tendencies among different peoples and nations, for better or worse, to go beyond their respective borders. They went in search of something different: different territories, different peoples, different opportunities, different spheres of influence, different many others.
These border-crossing agencies were not the only ones. As we have seen in this book’s chapters, to them we can add a few more: Baquijano, Tituba, President Woodrow Wilson, founders of the United Nations, Dutch colonialists, Indonesian freedom fighters and others. They also took paths beyond their familiar borders in search of something new, something different.
In the case of Jose Xavier Leandro Baquijano, we see a creole who was not satisfied with the level of education he had in the colonial Peru and went across the Atlantic in search of a better education which eventually helped him held a very high political status in his home country. Meanwhile in the case of the Indonesian freedom fighters we witness how the subjugated people fought hard to overcome their colonial status and become free citizens of an independent nation.
Each of the chapters of this book tries to humbly offer to you notes on the dynamics related to this border-crossing movement, especially during the colonial and early post-colonial periods of the modern history. Together the chapters seek to show you how during the two periods people began to globally move around and influence (often dominate) each other, directly or indirectly. It occurred not only in one place but in many: not only in England but also in South America; not only in Continental Europe, but also in Indonesia. As results, the border-crossing endeavors have caused numerous tragedies, from deadly witch-hunting and wars to colonialism and imperialism.
But the coin has two sides. These border crossing activities have also caused the births of new ideas, international collaboration, cultural exchanges, and trans-national institutions. As we can see, in Indonesia colonialism had caused devastating impact on the life of the people throughout the colonial period. At the same time, it helped connect the multi-island region called “Nusantara” into one modern nation-state called the Republic of Indonesia.
It is hoped that this book will entice us to broaden our horizon, to move us beyond our familiar borders (call them comfort zones, if you wish): not in order to dominate and cause suffering of other people, but in order to pursue and share knowledge, expertise, and the spirit of collaboration for the sake of a better global future.
Who knows, perhaps the time has come for us today to cross borders, to wander, to be in exile, or to prepare ourselves for encounters beyond the familiar. After all, as Jhumpa Lahiri believes, border crossing, wandering, being in exile and encountering situations beyond the familiar have been materials for poets and writers in telling narratives since the beginning of literature.
Acknowledgement
THE book that is currently in your hands is a work that is the fruit of so much contribution from many people. For this I would like thank those of you who—directly and indirectly—have helped me making this book a reality.
First of all I would like to thank my professors at Marquette University in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA, who have taught me innumerable lessons not only on how to be brave enough to go beyond the borders, but also how to read, research and write as an academic.
In a specific way I would like to thank Professors Steven M. Avella, Michael Zeps SJ, Phillip Naylor, Julius Ruff, Alan Ball, John Krugler, Lance Grahn, Athan Theoharis and the great Father F. Paul Prucha SJ.
In addition to them, I would like to thank my brother Jesuits Jeff Loebl, Bob Leiweke, Dick Sherburne and Tom Caldwell who helped me a lot outside the classroom. To my former fellow graduate students at Marquette University especially Patricia Richard, John Donovan, Edward Schmitt, Trinette Robichaux, Bess Frank, Julie Leonard, Kathy Callahan, Bernard McDevitt III, James Bohl, Sita Supomo, Andyka Amir, Ricky Sembiring, I would also like to express my gratitude.
My special thanks to Francisca Titin, Stephanie Turangan, Edward Wirawan, Ruth Maria Goretti, MM. Sutyasmi, Th. Tyas Sulistyowati, A. Tri Astuti, B. Endah Nuraeni, Robert Susanto, A. Budi Tjahjono and B. Mariana Widhiarti for their continuous support.
At Sanata Dharma University in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, I would like to thank for the support from my fellow History lecturers such as Lucia Juningsih, H. Purwanta, H. Hery Santosa, Anton Haryono, Silverio R.L Aji Sampurno, Yerry Wirawan, Ign. Sandiwan Suharso, and Heri Priyatmoko.
Along with them I also would like to thank my students at the university’s History Department as well as at the Religious and Cultural Studies Master’s Program. My fellow officials and staff at the university’s PUSDEMA (Center for Democracy and Human Rights Studies) have been very helpful to me in discussion regarding the preparation for the publication this book, and to them I would like to extend my thankfulness.
Last but not least I would like to thank those who, in the final stages of this book’s publication, lent their helpful hands, such as Teguh Prastowo and Antonius Sigit Suryanto from Galangpress Publisher, as well as Mas Thomas and Mbak Margiyanti from USD Press.
Thank you, thank you all.
Beyond The Usual Borders
An Introduction
WHAT did the Romans, Genghis Khan, Christopher Columbus and the CIA have in common? They were all “border crossers”. They were not content with their respective traditional borders and they went pass these borders. The Romans were not pleased with their traditional territory in the Italian region and they went to the four directions of the wind in search of new territories. Settled in the cold area of Northern Asia, Genghis Khan often led his armies to cross their traditional borders and attack foreign lands, as far as Europe. Christopher Columbus and his companies did not seem to be happy with just living within the traditional borders in the Iberian Peninsula and went beyond the geographical limits, before eventually they found a new continent. Meanwhile the CIA, a post-colonial U.S. agency, often busied itself with interfering the business of other countries, sometimes countries which were far away from U.S. borders.
It appears that since the ancient times there has been strong tendencies among people and nations to go beyond their own borders, in the broadest sense of the word, in search of something different— different territories, different peoples, different opportunities, different spheres of influence, etc. Not surprisingly, the historical border-crossing-agents mentioned above were not alone. There were many others. To them we can add a list of other people who were also crossing the borders in search of something different, something new: the American Indians, the Vikings, the Germans, the Arabs, the Chinese, and many more…. In some cases these people crossed their borders to go to other places for good reasons; in some other cases they did it based on less-than-noble intentions.
The colonial and post-colonial periods of world history were marked by the same tendencies. Throughout these periods there were efforts among different peoples to expand their knowledge and understanding beyond their conventional borders. Due to the ability to build bigger seafaring ships and better system of navigation during the colonial period people in Europe continuously managed to cover great distances and found new territories hidden from them for centuries.
This book tries to humbly offer notes on the dynamics related to such a tendency, especially during the colonial and post-colonial periods. It wants to show how during the two periods people began to globally move around and influence (often dominate) each other, directly and indirectly. It happened not only in one place but in many: not only in England but also in South America; not only in Continental Europe, but also in Indonesia. As result, there were colonization, imperialism, birth of new ideas, global politics, cultural exchange, capital punishment, formation of trans-national communities, regional rebellion, war, et cetera.
As we will see in chapter one, for instance, a Creole by the name of Jose Xavier Leandro Baquijano y Carrilo tried almost all means available to him to pursue the highest position possible in the colonial government of Peru. Unsatisfied with the educational system in his country he crossed his country’s borders and went to Madrid to study. Once he finished his studies he returned back to his homeland and shrewdly climbed the ladder of government position before eventually in 1812 he was appointed as alcadel de crimen (head of crime division) and later as oidor on Lima’s Audiencia, a position that up to that time was allowed only for people from Spain. An Oidor, a judge of the Royal Audiencias and Chancillerías, was the highest organ of justice within the Spanish Empire.
The individual case of Baquijano certainly reminds us of the larger dynamics of the period in which many people in Spain (and Portugal) were not content with their own boundaries in Southern Europe and began to explore a wider world, crossing the Atlantic, before eventually they found a new vast land they called the “New World”. In the early 1500s they began to settle the areas which today comprised mainly of the Caribbean islands, South and Central America. Similarly, in the early 1600s many people from England began to emigrate to and built colonies in the eastern coast of North America. The settlement was later followed by westward expansion at the expense of the native population.
In chapter two we will see how the cultural practice of doing witchcraft in the Caribbean could bring deadly consequences among the Puritan community in the colonial east coast of the United States. The chapter will offer an example on how external factors mixed with local politics could bring devastating and long-lasting consequences to the society. In chapter three we will take a closer look at the colonial-period American newspaper called the New York Evening Post. As reflected in this newspaper up to the mid-18th century many Americans were still very much European-oriented. It was well-represented in the Post. Instead reporting news about America, the news in the newspaper were mostly about events outside the American borders, namely Europe, and more specifically England.
In chapter four we will address an irony in the literatures pertaining to the role of religious groups in shaping U.S. foreign policy. On the one hand, religious groups have been very influential in the shaping of U.S. policies toward other countries. On the other, there were not enough publication discussing the issue. As this chapter will show, there are two schools of thought regarding literatures on U.S. foreign policy. One is the so-called negative-ecclesiastical school of thought. The other is the so-called affirmative-ecclesiastical school of thought. While the former emphasizes the limited nature of the role played by religious groups in shaping US foreign policy, the latter gives more emphasis on significant role that religious groups play in shaping the policy.
Chapter five talks about tension that existed between the Catholic Church in the US and the U.S. government at the turn of the 19th to the 20th century, especially with regard to American occupation of the Philippines. The occupation raised at least two concerns for the U.S. Catholic Church. One, any occupation of a foreign country was considered against the anti-colonial principle of the US. Two, the people of the Philippines were mostly Catholic which in the US Catholic Church’s view should not be subjugated under Protestant-dominated U.S. government.
In chapter six we will see the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 through a book called The Brink: Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962 written by David William Detzer. This book is very interesting because it was written by someone who were actually “there” when the crisis took place, In addition, as the sources for the book he interviewed who were also “there” when the crisis unfolded. Other than giving the context of the crisis Detzer also gave the reactions and comments of the eyewitnesses of the crisis from President John F. Kennedy and Premier Nikita Khrushchev to ordinary American citizens. As we know it, the Cuban Missile Crisis was actually a cross-border crisis, since it involved at least three countries, namely the U.S., Cuba and the Soviet Union. Within the context of the Cold War one can imagine that any mishandling of the crisis could result in another devastating global war.
Chapter seven will take us to factors that led U.S. President Woodrow Wilson to come up with the idea of forming The League of Nations in the wake of World War I. As we will see, the factors were personal and national as well as international. As an advocate of international peace and collaboration, Wilson was successful in selling the idea abroad, but he ironically failed to persuade his own country to ratify the membership to the League. Needless to say, Wilson’s idea to form an international league in which the US was one of its members failed. Following the end of World War II, however, similar idea emerged and it eventually led to the establishment of the United Nations.
Chapter eight is still about President Wilson, albeit on a slightly different topic. Wilson might have failed in his foreign policies, but domestically he had a lasting impact on the American economy. Along with President Theodore Roosevelt, he was also considered a “progressive” president. Although originally a conservative, Wilson gradually became open to the idea that came from the Progressives, the idea of fighting against monopolistic system of economy in America at the early years of the 20th century. Wilson adopted and supported the Progressives by giving the government more authority and power to break up monopolistic practices done by big U.S. corporations. Wilson’s policies would later be adopted by his successors.
In chapter nine we will see that President Wilson’s failure in forming the League of Nations does not mean the death of the idea of collaborations among nations across borders. As mentioned above following the end of World War II initiatives to push for international collaboration for the sake of global peace re-emerged and it brought to the establishment of the United Nations which is still in existence today. In this chapter we will focus more on how the UN addresses issues on human rights.
One of the many ways nations pursued in going beyond their borders was conquering other nations. Imperialism was one of the forms of the conquering. There are several theories about imperialism. Lenin, for instance, believed that imperialism is the highest stage of capitalism. Schumpeter, however, proposed a different theory of imperialism. He believed that imperialism did not stem from capitalism, but from a different source. In chapter ten we will see what was actually the source behind imperialism according to Schumpeter.
Regardless of the many theories on imperialism, the practice of imperialism was not the only way for a nation to engage another nation. In the wake of World War II, for instance, nations in Europe wanted to engage with each other, but in a different way. They wanted to integrate nations of Western European through trans-national collaboration. Spearheaded by France, they began with limited economic collaboration. These nations then worked together beyond economic issues. The United Kingdom was invited to join the collaboration but the island-nation was not always sure how to respond. In chapter eleven we will look at how the British saw their role in the European integration process, and how the membership in the European Union would or would not affect British social, economic and political life.
The last two chapters of this book are a bit different. While chapters one to eleven talk about other places, especially the Americas and Europe, chapter 12 and 13 will focus on Indonesia. The two chapters will remind us that even after Indonesia declared its independence on August 17, 1945, the former colonial powers still wanted to re-occupy the newly-independent nation-state.
Chapter 12 will look at how World War II affected the struggle for independence in Indonesia amidst of the complex war-time relations in which the Netherlands wanted to recolonize Indonesia.
Chapter 13 will bring us to look at how—through its intelligence agency—the United States involved itself in the domestic affairs of Indonesia, as a part to control the political and economic Indonesia in the post-colonial period. These two chapters will remind us that even after colonialism ended, more powerful nations were still interested in controlling weaker nations—albeit in a different way. Unfortunately it was not only the case of the Netherlands and the United States wanting to “recolonize” Indonesia, but also with the case of Indonesia which in 1975 invaded East Timor and occupied the territory for the next two and a half decades.
It is hoped that in this increasingly interconnected modern world this book will remind us that today’s global interconnectedness is not something that suddenly happens. It was instead a result of a long and gradual process, in our case since the colonial and post-colonial periods of history. Of course, there are laudable and not-so-laudable examples of border crossings. Promoting collaboration among nations is certainly laudable but covertly intervening in the domestic affairs of another country is far from being praiseworthy. We want to learn the lessons only from the ones that are respectful of the interests and well-being of others. In any case, we hope that the chapters in this book will provide us with a broader context for the current phenomenon of globalization with all its impact on our individual as well as collective life.
On a technical level, if while reading this book you feel that each of the chapters are not smoothly connected, you are totally right. The chapters of this book were not from the beginning intentionally produced to be a single book. They were originally papers written as parts of class requirements while the author was studying for a master’s and PhD degrees at Marquette University, in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA. Only later were these papers collected and edited so that they can be published as a single book. If you still find it inconvenient to read it as a book, the author would like to sincerely apologize.
All said, the author hopes that you will enjoy reading this book (read: these notes) and the topics being covered. It is hoped that the book will help you continue to broaden your horizons; to seek new possibilities; to explore new territories beyond the usual borders. Bon voyage.
